Root Causes of Non-Reading and Struggling Reading in Filipino: Towards Developing Courses of Action and Development of Reading Program Conceptual Models
Keywords:
Department of Education; Filipino language; non-readers; struggling readers; reading modelsAbstract
Despite the sustained implementation of literacy programs by the Department of Education (DepEd) in the Philippines, non-reading and struggling reading in the Filipino language continue to persist in high school. This study aimed to (a) examine the underlying causes of such reading difficulties based on the lived experiences of students and the perspectives of parents, teachers, and selected DepEd officials; (b) propose appropriate courses of action; and (c) develop conceptual models for reading programs. Data was gathered through interviews, memoing, and focus group discussions among a total of 36 participants and were analyzed thematically. Findings revealed that non-reading was primarily associated with limited social resources, challenges in social adjustment, experiences of mistreatment and discrimination, and negative attitude toward reading. Struggling readers, on the other hand, were affected by issues related to educational quality, inadequate learning resources, limited social support, developmental disabilities, mental and emotional challenges, family interdependence, and attitudes toward reading. Based on these findings, the study recommended strengthening learning support networks, engaging experts and individuals with specialized training, revisiting and enhancing teacher education curricula, and implementing relevant and sustainable extension programs. Two conceptual models for reading programs were developed, anchored on the identified root causes. The findings underscore that effective reading interventions must be responsive to the actual needs of non-readers and struggling readers, as perceived by DepEd officials and parents. The study contributes to literature by addressing the persistent gap between literacy challenges identified since 2018 and the literacy programs implemented by DepEd from 2002 to 2024.
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.25.2.24
References
Abarca, C. (2025, April 30). PSA study: 18.9M Filipino graduates in 2024 found to be functionally illiterate. INQUIRER.NET. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/2057015/almost-19-million-junior-senior-high-graduates-in-2024-cant-read-psa
Agbofa, F. J. K. (2023). Assessment of the impact of reading difficulties on learners’ academic performance: A case of junior high schools in the New Juaben North Municipal of Ghana. Scientific Research, 14(1), 124–136. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2023.141010
Aguye, A. S., & Berlie, A. D. (2024). English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ perceptions and practices of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in teaching reading skills in secondary schools. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 23(2), 510–527. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.2.25
Al-Ali, O. A., & Gaber, S. A. (2023). Improving teachers’ attitudes toward the teaching of intellectually disabled students through training in evidence-based practices. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 22(9), 332–346. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.22.9.18
Albano, E. C., Jr. (2021, August 24). Non-readers in high school. Tribune.net.ph. https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/NEWS/08_24_tribune.pdf
Almulla, A. A., Khasawneh, M. A. S., Abdel-Hadi, S. A., & Jarrah, H. Y. (2024). Influence of non-linear storytelling in video games on cognitive development among students with learning disabilities. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 23(1), 84–97. https://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/9488
Bajnok, A., Krisko, E., Korpics, F., Korpics, M. K., & Milovan, A. (2024). Focus group discussion as a method of data collection in higher education and related fields. Pro Publico Bono – Magyar Kozigazgatas, 12(2), 23–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.32575/ppb.2024.2.2
Basma, B., & Savage, R. (2023). Teacher professional development and student reading in middle and high school: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Teacher Education, 74(3), 214–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224871231153084
Bohannan, A. S. (2024). Root Cause Analysis (RCA). https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/religion-and-philosophy/root-cause-analysis-rca
Castro, Q. A. S. (2024). Frustration readers in senior high school: A case study. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 8(12), 2396–2409. http://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8120199
Demir, A., & Cetinkaya, S. (2024). Investigating the correlation between second grade primary school students’ fluent reading skills and parental involvement in home literacy activities. Education Mind, 3(3), 331–343. http://dx.doi.org/10.58583/EM.3.3.4
Department of Education. (2002, September 11). DepEd Order No. 45, s. 2002: Reading literacy program in the elementary schools. GOVPH. https://www.deped.gov.ph/2002/09/11/do-45-s-2002-reading-literacy-program-in-the-elementary-schools/
Department of Education. (2011). DepEd Order No. 70, s. 2011: Guidelines on the utilization of funds for Every Child a Reader Program (ECARP). https://www.deped.gov.ph/2011/09/08/do-70-s-2011-guidelines-on-the-utilization-of-funds-for-every-child-a-reader-program-ecarp/
Department of Education. (2015). DepEd Order No. 12, s. 2015: Guidelines on the Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy Program – Professional Development Component. https://www.deped.gov.ph/2015/04/10/do-12-s-2015-guidelines-on-the-early-language-literacy-and-numeracy-program-professional-development-component/
Department of Education. (2019). DepEd Memorandum No. 173, s. 2019: HAMON—Bawat Bata Bumabasa (3Bs) Initiative. https://www.deped.gov.ph/2019/11/22/november-22-2019-dm-173-s-2019-hamon-bawat-bata-bumabasa-3bs-initiative/
Department of Education. (2022). DepEd Order No. 024, s. 2022: Adoption of the Basic Education Development Plan 2023. https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/DO_s2022_024.pdf
Department of Education. (2023). DepEd Order No. 013, s. 2023: Adoption of the National Learning Recovery Program in the Department of Education. https://www.deped.gov.ph/2023/07/05/july-5-2023-do-013-s-2023-adoption-of-the-national-learning-recovery-program-in-the-department-of-education/
Department of Education. (2024). DepEd Memorandum No. 001, s. 2024: Implementation of Catch-up Fridays. https://region3.deped.gov.ph/sanjose/deped-introduces-catch-up-fridays-to-enhance-reading-skills-nationwide/
Department of Education. (2025a). DepEd Memorandum No. 034, s. 2025: Supplemental guidelines on the implementation of the Literacy Remediation Program. https://www.deped.gov.ph/2025/04/12/april-12-2025-dm-034-s-2025-supplemental-guidelines-on-the-implementation-of-the-literacy-remediation-program/
Department of Education. (2025b). DepEd Order No. 018, s. 2025: Implementing guidelines of the Academic Recovery and Accessible Learning Program. https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/DO_s2025_018r.pdf
Dwivedi, K. (2025). Toolkit for a qualitative research study. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392874430_Toolkit_for_a_Qualitative_Research_Study
Farahiba, A. S., Puspitasari, M., Khotimah, K., & Pramithasari, F. A. (2025). How can environmental education be incorporated into Indonesian language learning? A critical review of teachers’ perspectives. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(2), 335–358. http://dx.doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.1.17
Fajrie, N., & Purbasari, I. (2024). Does art education matter in inclusiveness for learners with disabilities? A systematic review. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 23(6), 96–124. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.6.5
Ferolino, F. B. (2023). Teachers’ teaching reading practices for non-readers: Towards developing a teaching framework for reading. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(5), 90–118.
Fraser, P., & Viac, C. (2020). Teachers’ well-being: A framework for data collection and analysis for PISA and TALIS. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 213, 1–81. https://doi.org/10.1787/c36fc9d3-en
GMA Public Affairs. (2018, September 3). I-Witness: 'Pag-asa sa Pagbasa,' dokumentaryo ni Kara David (full episode) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7JegoKjpmM
Gaber, S. A., Allam, S. F., El-Amin, M. A.-M., Hamad, A. M., Fattah, N. E. E. A., Ibrahim, A. H., Al Hassan, S. A., Al-Ali, O. A., & Alboray, H. M. (2023, November). Improving the Reading and Writing Skills of Students with Mild Intellectual Disability: The Effectiveness of Infographics. https://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/8990.
Geampana, A., & Perrotta, M. (2024). Using interview excerpts to facilitate focus group discussion. Qualitative Research, 25(1), 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/14687941241234283
Graber, M. L., Castro, G. M., Danforth, M., Tilly, J. L., Croskerry, P., El-Kareh, R., Hemmalgarn, C., Ryan, R., Tozier, M. P., Trowbridge, B., Wright, J., & Zwaan, L. (2024). Root cause analysis of cases involving diagnosis. Diagnosis (Berlin, Germany), 11(4), 353–368. https://doi.org/10.1515/dx-2024-0102
Given, L. M. (Ed.). (2008). Memos and memoing. In The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (pp. 506–506). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909.n260
High school non-readers: Failure of divisions and elementary schools—DepEd. (2019, March 18). Zigzag Weekly. https://www.zigzagweekly.net/high-school-non-readers-failure-of-divisions-elementary-schools-deped/
Jimenez, G. (2023, December). Enhancing literacy skills: Implementing multisensory approaches to support non-readers in classroom environments. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376205297_Enhancing_Literacy_Skills_Implementing_Multisensory_Approaches_to_Support_Non-Readers_in_Classroom_Environments
Johri, M. (2024). Enhancement of cognitive skills and creativity: Impact of reading on the enhancement of cognitive skills and creativity in children, 13(1), 1–10.
Khan, N., Khalique, F., & Saini, K. (2025). Qualitative research methods: Harnessing interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/388784230_Qualitative_Research_Methods_Harnessing_Interviews_Focus_Groups_Observations_and_Document_Analysis
Kilag, O. K. T., Pulvera, D. C. C., Gabotero, R. C., & Adlawan, E. R. M. (2023). A study of learners’ perceived challenges in reading: Implications for developing school reading programs. European Journal of Pedagogical Initiatives and Educational Practices, 1(1), 46–49.
Lestari, G. P., Syihabuddin, Kosasi, A., & Somad, M. A. (2023). The effectiveness of interactive reading models in improving early students’ language skills. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 22(9), 280–295. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.22.9.15
Li, Q., Kong, K., & Zhang, M. (2024). The influence of parents’ beliefs and home literacy environment on preschoolers’ attitudes toward learning English as a foreign language. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 23(8), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.8.17
Madugu, U., & Ibrahim, F. A. (2024). The imperative of triangulation in research. Journal of Political Discourse, 2(2). https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1573-6024
Magsino, D. (2020, February 17). Bicol has around 76,000 ‘struggling readers’ — DepEd exec. GMA News Online. https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/regions/726244/bicol-has-around-76-000-struggling-readers-deped-exec/story/
Main, S., Hill, S., & Paolino, A. (2023). Improving the reading skills of struggling secondary students in a real-world setting: Issues of implementation and sustainability. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 28(1), 73–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2023.2210588
Mwilongo, N. H. (2025). Focus group discussions on qualitative research: Dos and don’ts. Eminent Journal of Social Sciences (EJSS), 1(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.70582/7fmpzs58
Naeem, M., Ozuem, W., Howell, K., & Ranfagni, S. (2023, November). A step-by-step process of thematic analysis to develop a conceptual model in qualitative research. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375508401_A_Step-by-Step_Process_of_Thematic_Analysis_to_Develop_a_Conceptual_Model_in_Qualitative_Research
Obiegbu, I. R. (2018). Reading errors in second language learners. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018792973
Ortega, W. G., & Sumayo, G. S. (2024). Public elementary teachers’ motivation and pedagogical competence in teaching non-readers: A correlational study. Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 2(4), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10813985
Panyasai, P., & Ambele, E. (2025). Developing interview guide in qualitative research: Problems and solutions from a needs analysis doctoral study. rEFLections, 32(1), 576–594. http://dx.doi.org/10.61508/refl.v32i1.280411
Pamungkas, B., Wahab, R., Suwarjo, S., & Susen, A. (2023). School and family collaboration on twice-exceptional academic program services. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 22(12), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.22.12.17
Peng, P., Wang, W., Filderman, M. J., Zhang, W., & Lin, L. (2024). The active ingredient in reading comprehension strategy intervention for struggling readers: A Bayesian network meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 94(2), 228–267. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543231171345
Pontillas, M. S. (2025). Learning in a borderless classroom: A phenomenological study of learning during education disruption. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(3), 149–165. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.3.8
Rebucias, A. J. L. (2024). Perceptions on the teaching of reading skills in senior high: A comparative study among students and teachers in Metro Gensan. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10896599
Redulfin, A. N. (2024). Well-being of non-readers in Tantangan 1 District: A case study. Ignatian International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 2(4), 280–289. https://doi.org/10.17613/0ccx3-j9c44
Regmi, C. R., Oli, I. K., Kaphle, P., & Silwal, G. P. (2023). Exploring discrimination experienced by secondary level students in ELT classroom: A narrative inquiry. Journal of Balkumari College, 12(1), 88–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jbkc.v12i1.60435
a. Republic of the Philippines. (1987). The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/
Republic Act No. 12028. (2024) An act establishing an Academic Recovery and Accessible Learning (ARAL) Program and appropriating funds therefor. The Lawphil Project. https://lawphil.net/statutes/repact/ra2024/ra_12028_2024.html
Rohimah, S. (2021). Reading difficulties and factors affecting reading difficulties of students of grade 1 elementary school. LADU: Journal of Languages and Education, 1(5), 189–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.56724/ladu.v1i5.85
Rohmah, R. M., & Imaniar, F. (2023). Investigating external causes for lack of reading motivation among private high school students. Mikailalsys Journal of Multidisciplinary Sciences, 1(3), 341–348. https://doi.org/10.58578/mikailalsys.v1i3.2266
Rosano, D. A., Conjusta, G. R., Gallardo, J. B., & Sindingan, L. F. (2025). Teaching remedial reading: Content area teachers’ difficulties and needs. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(2), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.2.8
Schwarz, J., Lizarazu, M., Lallier, M., & Klimovich-Gray, A. (2023, October 23). Phonological deficits in dyslexia impede lexical processing of spoken words: Linking behavioural and MEG data. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374784190_Phonological_deficits_in_dyslexia_impede_lexical_processing_of_spoken_words_Linking_behavioural_and_MEG_data#fullTextFileContent
Second Congressional Commission on Education. (2024). Miseducation: The failed system of Philippine education: EDCOM II year one report. Second Congressional Commission on Education.
Senate of the Philippines. (2025, April 30). EDCOM 2: Around 18M Filipinos finished high school despite being functionally illiterate [Press release]. https://legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2025/0430_edcom1.asp
Srinivasaragavan, D., Ramalingam, K., & Ramani, P. (2024). Root cause analysis: Unraveling common laboratory challenges. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.53393
Ulwiyah, I. (2021). Investigating translation techniques through theme-rheme analysis. Lingua Didaktika: Jurnal Bahasa dan Pembelajaran Bahasa, 15(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.24036/ld.v15i1.110507
United Nations. (n.d.). Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/education/
Xu, N., Xiong, S., & Kong, Y. (2024). Unveiling English reading literacy: Insights from senior high school students in Chongqing, China. SAGE Open, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241281413
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Raquel Mañago Reapor
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All articles published by IJLTER are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivatives 4.0 International License (CCBY-NC-ND4.0).
