Teacher Competency Challenges in Resource-Constrained Rural Schools: Professional Development Needs in Communities with Left-Behind Children
Keywords:
rural teacher competence; left-behind children; professional development; resource-constrained schools; qualitative research; ChinaAbstract
Rural teachers in China frequently work in resource-constrained schools while supporting large numbers of left-behind children, requiring competencies that extend beyond conventional instructional practice. Although previous studies have examined teacher competence, professional development, and the educational needs of left-behind children, these areas have often been investigated separately, resulting in a limited understanding of how rural teachers perceive their competence and the contextual factors that shape their professional practice. This study explored (1) rural primary school teachers' perceived competencies in contextualized instruction, support for left-behind children, and adaptation to limited resources, (2) their professional development needs, and (3) the contextual conditions influencing the enactment of these competencies. An exploratory qualitative design was employed, using semi-structured interviews with 10 teachers from five public primary schools in an agricultural community in eastern China. Data were analyzed through reflexive thematic analysis. The findings indicate that teachers demonstrated strong adaptive competencies by contextualizing instruction, utilizing locally available resources, and providing instructional and socio-emotional support to left-behind children. However, competencies requiring sustained collaboration with families, community partners, and institutional support were more difficult to enact. Teachers further identified context-responsive professional development, including mentoring, demonstration teaching, collaborative learning communities, child psychology, and family engagement, as essential for strengthening practice. Hence, the study proposes a context-shaped competencies perspective, suggesting that teacher competence emerges through the interaction between professional capability and the social, cultural, and material conditions of rural schooling. The findings provide evidence for designing professional development and educational policies that are responsive to the realities of resource-constrained rural schools.
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.25.7.33
References
Ancheta, J., & Gallego, M. G. (2025). Navigating Challenges: The lived experiences of social studies teachers facing Resource-Trapped in Far-Flung Areas. Psychology and Education a Multidisciplinary Journal, 36(9), 1023–1044. https://doi.org/10.70838/pemj.360907
Arifin, Laia, B., Windayani, N. L. I., Ndraha, L. D. M., Dewi, N. W. R., Djara, J. I., & Subayil, I. (2025). Improving the Professional Competence of Teachers through Learning Communities. JURNAL IQRA, 10(1), 95–109. https://doi.org/10.25217/ji.v10i1.4154
Bai, Y., Zhang, L., Liu, C., Shi, Y., Mo, D., Rozelle, S., Bai, Y., Zhang, L., Liu, C., Shi, Y., Mo, D., & Rozelle, S. (2016). Effect of parental migration on the academic performance of left-behind children in Northwestern China. Unknown. https://doi.org/10.22004/AG.ECON.236806
Bhattarai, T. (2025). Exploring approaches to contextualize community resources in secondary level classroom instruction in Nepal. Rupandehi Campus Journal, 5(1), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.3126/rcj.v5i1.82314
Bhattarai, T., & Belbase, N. (2025). Inclusion of local resources in secondary level school education in Rupandehi District Nepal. International Journal on Science and Technology, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.71097/ijsat.v16.i1.6937
Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. Sage, London.
Brühwiler, C., & Vogt, F. (2021). Adaptive teaching competency. Effects on quality of instruction and learning outcomes. Journal for Educational Research Online, 12, 119-142. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:19121
Candrawati, A., & Purbani, W. (2025). Teaching English in rural settings: A systematic review of challenges and strategies in non-technological classrooms. English Language Teaching Educational Journal, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v8i2.14081
Chen, G., & Zhou, J. (2025). Enhancing early English exposure for rural left-behind children: Integrating home–kindergarten collaboration and learning qualities development. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports, 19(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajarr/2025/v19i2888
Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017, June 4).). Effective teacher professional development. Learning Policy Institute. https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/teacher-prof-dev
Fitrianto, I., & Farisi, M. (2025). Integrating local wisdom into 21st century skills: A contextual framework for culturally relevant pedagogy in rural classrooms. International Journal of Post Axial: Futuristic Teaching and Learning, 3(2), 44–58. https://doi.org/10.59944/postaxial.v3i2.444
Fu, L., & Zhu, Y. (2020). Are rural children of work-away parents really left behind? Voices from rural teachers. Children and Youth Services Review, 117, 105269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105269
Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2005). How many interviews are enough? Field Methods, 18(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822x05279903
Hatton, T., & Jajalla, J. (2025). Instructional practices of indigenous schools: Contextualized Mathematical learning in focus. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation. https://doi.org/10.64637/631944
Jia, Z., Ng, J. C., & Wu, Q. (2025). The role of parent–child communication on Chinese rural left-behind children’s educational expectation: a moderated mediation analysis. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04334-1
Katniyon, H., Duguryil, Z., & Gyitbe, L. (2025). An Assessment of Human and Material Resources in Plateau State Primary and Early Childhood Care Education (ECCE) Schools. Greener Journal of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.15580/gjer.2025.1.070225107
Leach, T., & Bradbury, O. (2024). Equipping Teachers for Success in Rural Communities: Unveiling the Key Characteristics and Attributes of Thriving Rural Teachers. Education Sciences. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14121384
Li, J., Xue, E., & You, H. (2024). Parental educational expectations and academic achievement of left-behind children in China: The mediating role of parental involvement. Behavioral Sciences, 14(5), 371. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14050371
Li, M., Cai, L., Chen, D., & Ye, J. (2023). Measuring Chinese rural science teachers’ self-perception towards teaching competencies: Instrument development. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 22(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/23.22.3
Li, J., Shi, Z., & Xue, E. (2019). The problems, needs and strategies of rural teacher development at deep poverty areas in China: Rural schooling stakeholder perspectives. International Journal of Educational Research, 99, 101496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.101496
Li, M., Cai, L., Chen, D., & Ye, J. (2022). MEASURING CHINESE RURAL SCIENCE TEACHERS’ SELF-PERCEPTION TOWARDS TEACHING COMPETENCIES: INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT. Journal of Baltic Science Education. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.1026
Liu, L. (2025). Advancing teachers’ digital competence in western China’s inclusive kindergartens through human–machine collaboration: An intelligent diagnosis-driven pathway for integrating local resources. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education (ICAIE) (pp. 299–303). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAIE64856.2025.11158307
Liu, Y. (2024). Family–school co-education for left-behind children in the context of rural revitalization: Challenges, approaches, and policy analysis. International Journal of Education and Humanities, 11(3), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.54097/jp8zfx95
Mdodana-Zide, L. (2023). Teachers’ pedagogical strategies in under-resourced rural schools in South Africa. E-Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.20234123
Metsäpelto, R., Poikkeus, A., Heikkilä, M., Husu, J., Laine, A., Lappalainen, K., Lähteenmäki, M., Mikkilä-Erdmann, M., Warinowski, A., Iiskala, T., Hangelin, S., Harmoinen, S., Holmström, A., Kyrö-Ämmälä, O., Lehesvuori, S., Mankki, V., & Suvilehto, P. (2021). A multidimensional adapted process model of teaching. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 34, 143 - 172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-021-09373-9
Mo, X., Shi, G., Zhang, Y., Xu, X., & Ji, C. (2023). How to promote the social–emotional competence of rural left-behind children? An empirical study based on propensity score matching. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1052693. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1052693
Nurteteng, N., Sunra, L., & Dollah, S. (2024). Adapting the English Language Teaching Curriculum to overcome resource limitations in rural areas. Jambura Journal of English Teaching and Literature. https://doi.org/10.37905/jetl.v5i2.27988
Paradise, T., Schilling, M., Grohs, J., & Laney, J. (2022). Teacher experiences in a community-based rural partnership: Recognizing community assets. Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research (J-PEER). https://doi.org/10.7771/2157-9288.1316
Pi, X., Huang, J., & Niu, J. (2024). How rural schoolteachers can support the learning adjustment of left-behind children under the “double-reduction” policy. Future in Educational Research, 3(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/fer3.31
Ramaila, S. (2022). The use of improvised resources in science classrooms in South African township schools. In Education and New Developments 2022 – Volume I. https://doi.org/10.36315/2022v1end083
Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Professional development for language teachers: Strategies for teacher learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Silseth, K., & Erstad, O. (2018). Connecting to the outside: Cultural resources teachers use when contextualizing instruction. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 17, 56–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2017.12.002
Tang, S., Wong, A. K. Y., Li, D. D., & Cheng, M. (2019). Reconceptualizing professional competence development of student teachers in initial teacher education. Research Papers in Education, 36, 152 - 175. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2019.1633563
Vásquez, M., Ramírez, L., Bernaola, M., Torrealva, J., Torrealva, Z., Cárdenas, D., & Altamirano, S. (2025). Inclusive pedagogy and active learning in higher education: Cluster and dimensional insights into teaching competency integration. Social Sciences & Humanities Open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.102060
Weiss, M. P., Rowe, D., Mims, P. J., & Farmer, T. (2023). There’s no place like us: Beyond fidelity of implementation in rural contexts. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 31, 154 - 167. https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266231155856
Yang, N., Qi, Y., Lu, J., Hu, J., & Ren, Y. (2021). Teacher–child relationships, self-concept, resilience, and social withdrawal among Chinese left-behind children: A moderated mediation model. Children and Youth Services Review, 129, 106182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106182
Yeboah, R., Abonyi, U., & Luguterah, A. (2019). Making primary school science education more practical through appropriate interactive instructional resources: A case study of Ghana. Cogent Education, 6. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1611033
Zhang, H., & Tian, M. (2024). Unpacking the multi-dimensional nature of teacher competencies: a systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 69, 1004 - 1025. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2024.2369867
Zhang, R., Qiu, Z., Li, Y., Liu, L., & Zhi, S. (2020). Teacher support, peer support, and externalizing problems among left-behind children in rural China: Sequential mediation by self-esteem and self-control. Children and Youth Services Review, 113, 105824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105824
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Jing Chang, Marilou Saong
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All articles published by IJLTER are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivatives 4.0 International License (CCBY-NC-ND4.0).
